tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-69911698911814779692024-02-08T10:05:13.282-08:00SciencePintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.comBlogger73125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-87191016638500460152009-11-04T04:54:00.004-08:002009-11-04T04:55:03.871-08:00Should We Fear Fast Moving Physics Research?Many have worried about the work being done at some of the linear accelerators around the world, especially recently at CERN, some are worried that by simulating a black hole, which is a theory, with particles, that we might open up a self-perpetuating a growing object that might swallow us up. Well, scientists and researchers tell us to hold our conspiracy theory, paranormal, and anti-research rhetoric, as they say it will not happen.<br /><br />Can they guarantee that? Well, their answers are usually no, but they say based on the theories and understanding of such, it's not possible, or so improbable that it is not a concern at CERN. Well, no matter how improbable it might be, if there is the slightest chance, you can see why people are a bit concerned about such things.<br /><br />Not long ago an acquaintance said to me; "[Humans] are infants in the world of physics [and] until this species understands the basic language of the universe, and doesn't mess things up, we won't be allowed into that playground."<br /><br />This maybe so, but it postulates two things. One, that there is a greater intelligence out there, that is keeping an eye on the human race and our evolutionary and science developments. And two, that the human species is naive when it comes to physics and what is known.<br /><br />Now then, we need to be very careful what we call "this species" as there is a lot of separation between the members of this species in intelligence and reasoning ability. Human science is making headway. Further, human pursuit of knowledge will never stop. Messing things up, is a concern, yes, but that should not stop the flow or pursuit of truth.<br /><br />None of this bothers me to consider, but others get so upset because it interferes with their belief system, which is too bad. We must not stop research, we must press on, and we ought to minimize risk, but we must move forward. Please consider all this.<br /><br />Lance Winslow is a retired Founder of a Nationwide Franchise Chain, and now runs the Online Think Tank. Lance Winslow believes all research facilities need good EMTs with updated certificates; EMT Recertification<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Lance_WinslowPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-13712272093332671062009-11-04T04:54:00.003-08:002009-11-04T04:54:47.367-08:00What is an Electrical Current?We all learnt at school in our science class that electricity is the flow of electrical power or current through a conductor or circuit. But electricity does not actually exist as an electrical quantity it is a commonly used generic term given to the movement or flow of electrical charge through a conductor. For example, we say that a river has a current flowing in it but this current is actually the movement of the water. If the water is stationary then there is no current flowing in the river and this is the same for electrical current. Electrical current results from the movement or flow of electrical charges from one point to another with the word current meaning the "flow of charge".<br /><br />Electrical charge is produced when free electrons leave the outer orbits of their respective atoms and move in a controlled direction from one atom to another through the conductor as a result of a force or energy being applied to them. This movement of free electrons through a conductor is known as drift which constitutes an electrical current flow. Then electrical current can be known as the rate of movement of charge.<br /><br />All conductors such as metals contain large amounts of electrons that are loosely connected to the nucleus of their respective atoms and so can easily move through the material from atom to atom. Therefore metals are full of charge making them conductive as opposed to insulators whose electrons are held tightly to their nucleus preventing them from moving. In some metals such as copper there is an abundance of these free electrons that randomly move about from atom to atom thereby making copper highly conductive.<br /><br />So why do we not get an electrical shock when we touch a copper pipe?. Well, this random movement of electrons from atom to atom does not result in a current flow as the electrons are constantly moving about in all different directions at once cancelling each other out so their combined movement in any one direction is zero. This random unorganised movement results in the overall electrical charge of the material being zero making it electrically neutral so we could say that the electrical charge in the copper pipe is uncharged.<br /><br />However, some of these free electrons can line up together on the outer surface of the copper pipe as they are restricted from moving about causing the surface of the metal to become negatively charged. Since the electrons are not moving the surface generates a negative static electrical charge known commonly as "Static Electricity" or simply electricity at rest.<br /><br />Connecting a battery to the copper causes all these free electrons to stop floating about, line up and move in the same direction resulting in an orderly flow of charge from one point to another and therefore a current. Then electrical current has a definite direction. We always think of electrical current flowing from the positive battery terminal to the negative battery terminal and we call this movement "conventional current flow". The reality is the reverse, electrons move in the opposite direction as they are attracted to the positive pole of the battery and are repelled by the negative pole. Then this direction is called electron flow.<br /><br />An electrical current that flows in one direction only all the time is said to be direct current (dc), while an electrical current that alternates back and forth in direction of flow is said to be an alternating current (ac). We measure the flow of charge in terms of amperes, abbreviated to "A" or just simply "amps".<br /><br />The amount of electrical charge that passes a point in a circuit at any one time is measured in COULOMBS abbreviated to "C", with one coulomb of charge flowing per second being equal to one ampere. One coulomb is approximately equal to an excess or deficiency of more than 6 trillion electrons, 1 coulomb = 6.28 x 10^18.<br /><br />So going back to our original question of "what is an electrical current" we can now say that an electrical current is an orderly flow of electrical charge through a conductor or circuit and which is measured in amperes.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Wayne_StorrPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-29929425341696955882009-11-04T04:54:00.001-08:002009-11-04T04:54:31.387-08:00Which Animal Has the Fastest Bite?The predator with the fastest bite known in the animal kingdom isn't the lion, the crocodile, or the great white shark. Rather, the world's most impressive jaws belong to an ant native to Central and South America.<br /><br />Biologists have found the trap-jaw ant, Odontomachus bauri, closes its mandibles in a mere 0.13 milliseconds, or 2,300 times faster than the blink of an eye. This translates to a speed of 35 to 64 meters per second, or 78 to 145 miles per hour.<br /><br />More impressive than the closing speed is the force and acceleration. Researchers found that the jaws accelerate at 100,000 times the force of gravity, with each jaw generating forces exceeding 300 times the insect's body weight. (The ants have typical body masses ranging from 12.1 to 14.9 milligrams, or about three hundredths of a pound.)<br /><br />Scientists point out this acceleration is huge compared to the tiny mass of the jaws, and is among the highest in the world. Although falcons can dive as fast as 300 miles per hour, they must start from very high altitudes and work with gravity to reach those speeds. On the other hand, trap-jaw ants rely entirely on energy stored in their own bodies.<br /><br />The mandibles of the trap-jaw ant are controlled by a pair of huge, contracting muscles in the head and are held by a pair of latches. The jaws are sprung when the latches are released. The researchers explain that using a latch system enables animals to obtain much faster speeds than through muscles alone. The analogy is throwing an arrow versus using a crossbow: the crossbow stores elastic energy, and a latch releases this energy almost instantaneously. As a result, the arrow shoots out very fast and goes much farther.<br /><br />Although trap-jaw ants use their jaws to catch prey, another use is to escape from other predators. By snapping their jaws against the ground, the ants can launch themselves into the air, achieving heights up to 8.3 centimeters or horizontal distances up to 39.6 centimeters. For a human, that's equivalent to jumping to a height of 44 feet or a horizontal distance of 132 feet. The path they take depends on the purpose of the mandible's strike. When escaping quickly from a predator, the ant strikes its jaws against the ground to propel itself upward.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Matt_JiPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-42453714184120813722009-11-04T04:52:00.000-08:002009-11-04T04:54:14.787-08:009th Grade Science Fair Projects Made Fun and EasyUnfairly or not, 9th grade science fair projects compete against those made by high school students, which can be intimidating for even the most accomplished 9th grade science whiz. Fortunately, the playing field can be leveled with the right science project that can compete head-on with others. But first, it is necessary to choose the type of science fair project you will take on. This makes the process of choosing the final science project so much easier since you have narrowed your choices down to a manageable level.<br /><br />Experimentation<br /><br />This is the most common type used in 9th grade science fair projects, which seek to answer a relatively straightforward question through the scientific method. Thus, you will observe and collect data, measure and organize it, construct a hypothesis and prediction, experiment with the variables, analyze the resulting data, make a model and finally, communicate the results. Of course, your venue for communication is the science fair. Fun examples of this type are the comparison of wood pellets for barbecues, determination of the best type of pesticide against crickets, and the evaluation of various types of water purification.<br /><br />Demonstration<br /><br />You will either confirm or invalidate the results of a previous experiment conducted by another scientist. In many instances, you do not have to replicate the processes previously employed as you can indeed improve upon them. Usually, demonstration type 9th grade science fair experiments can be culled from Internet resources, which have a rich abundance of full published studies made by other 9th graders. Examples include the improvement of jatropha oil properties and the explanation of the oscillating clock chemical reaction.<br /><br />Research<br /><br />As the name suggests, you collect relevant information about the chosen topic and then presenting your findings. Keep in mind that a good presentation for 9th grade science fair projects can make or break your science fair project so make it as best as you possibly can. To make it fun, you can use innovative presentation methods like a mini-play or a mini-demonstration. Or you can use more colorful materials to attract the attention of the observers and judges.<br /><br />Model<br /><br />If you want to stand out from among many 9th grade science fair projects, the best choice would be to go for the model type of project. You have to build a scale model to describe in visual and audio terms your chosen concept or principle. Examples include making a scale model of the tectonic plates to simulate earthquakes, constructing a baking soda volcano that spews vinegar, and building a solar toy car to explain its large-scale counterparts. Or to make it even more fun, you can invent something new! Don't worry if it appears silly to others because the silliest of inventions often start a revolution. Think of the way Henry Ford revolutionized car manufacture.<br /><br />Collection<br /><br />If you are an avid collector of things, you can show them off but with an award-winning twist. For example, instead of showing just your bug specimen collection, explain how each one differs according to the season of the year it was collected, how its environment may have affected its growth and many other things.<br /><br />Once you have selected from among these types, your 9th grade science fair projects will become more inspired, more focused and more award-winning. And isn't that where the fun really is?<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Dee_SchrockPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-1549347166105932242009-09-21T09:41:00.002-07:002009-09-21T09:43:36.207-07:00Darwin's Theory - His 'Inconceivably Great' Numbers of Intermediate Life Forms? Faces in the Clouds?<div id="body"><p>Charles Darwin spent some thirty pages in 'The Origin' discussing difficulties with his theory. He says, 'Some of them are so grave that to this day I can never reflect on them without being staggered...'. However, the problems that the theory still faces, 150 years after 'The Origin', are almost invariably ignored in both school textbooks and in media references to the theory.</p><p>Indeed, in the latter case the theory is usually treated as an unquestionable background fact. Based on such sources of information one would be hard-pressed to discover the issues that challenge the theory and to make an informed decision about its credibility. Fortunately, Darwin's Theory is such that we can all readily understand what it asserts, and discover and assess the facts relevant to it - without having to be experts in Biology and Palaeontology (my own background is mainly in Physics/Maths, which I taught in Further Education).</p><p>Darwin's Theory Of Evolution has enormous scope, in claiming to be the complete explanation of the development of all life, but it can be expressed in just two basic propositions:</p><p>1 - All organisms alive now or that have ever lived have been arrived at by extremely gradual changes along sequences made up of, as Darwin puts it in 'The Origin', 'inconceivably great' numbers of 'intermediate and transitional links'</p><p>2 - The mechanism of change along the sequences is dependent on Natural Selection preserving those characteristics that are inheritable and advantageous for survival</p><p>Evolutionary change is sometimes represented by a 'tree of life'. If we put vertebrates alive today in their appropriate places on such a 'tree', we find that there are localized numerical 'explosions' as species of fish, amphibians etc. mount up. However, we do not find sequences of life forms, corresponding to descendants of the supposed intermediates, to populate the trunk and branches of the tree, linking together the different distinct groups. All we have are a handful of curious individuals - these include monotremes, suggested as a link between reptiles and mammals - of these, Molecular Biologist, Michael Denton (in his 1985 'Evolution - A Theory In Crisis') says: 'Instead of finding character traits which are obviously transitional we find them to be basically reptilian or basically mammalian so...they afford little evidence for believing that any of the basic character traits of the mammals were achieved gradually in the way evolution envisages.'</p><p>When Darwin was writing 'The Origin' he knew that there were no fossil sequences to directly support his theory of gradual organic change. He wrote: 'That our paleontological collections are very imperfect, is admitted by everyone' - so presumably he expected that the fossil evidence his theory required would turn up as fossil collections became progressively more complete.</p><p>So what's the situation now, after 150 years of fossil-hunting? Dr. Niles Eldredge says (Guardian Weekly - 26th Nov. 1978): '...geologists have found rock layers of all divisions of the last 500 million years, and no transitional forms were found in them.' And Michael Denton says (ibid., page 162): '... while the rocks have continually yielded new and exciting and even bizarre forms of life ... what they have never yielded is any of Darwin's myriads of transitional forms...'.</p><p>As with the living, the fossils throw up individuals commonly referred to as 'missing-links'. However, to characterize such an individual as a 'link' is to assume the once existence of a chain from which it was a part - but that is to assume the very thing for which the evidence does not exist i.e. the reality of such chains of organic change.</p><p>Darwin's Theory was consistent with the overall structure of the then (1859) known fossil record - but the concern he expressed in 'The Origin' that 'Geological research...has done scarcely anything in breaking down the distinction between species, by connecting them together by numerous, fine, intermediate varieties' is as true now as it was in 1859. Couple this with the parallel fact that there are no sequences amongst the living corresponding to descendants of his 'inconceivably great' numbers of 'intermediate and transitional links', and it seems that Darwin's proposed huge sequences of organic change have no more correspondence to a demonstrable physical reality than do faces seen in the clouds.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><br /><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_95" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Andy_Chains">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Andy_Chains</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-68679135670254770282009-09-21T09:41:00.001-07:002009-09-21T09:41:34.934-07:007th Grade Science Project Ideas Made Simple and Fun<div id="body"><p>There are a number of 7th grade science project ideas that a student can choose from to demonstrate concepts learned in class. A few such projects include:</p><p>• Collect water from a nearby stream or pond and view a drop of it under a microscope. Note what kinds of things you see and make drawings of them. Which are plants and which are animals? What is greater in your sample, plants or animals? What factors might affect the numbers of each that you find?</p><p>• Draw a cell and label all of its parts. What function does each part of the cell serve? Are there differences between plant and animal cells? If do, what are they?</p><p>• Name the four different blood groups found in humans. What type is the rarest? The most common? How does the blood type of a person's parents affect the outcome of their own (i.e. if a person with type A blood marries someone with type O, what type will any offspring have)?</p><p>• Draw a picture of a red blood call from a human and label all of its parts. Now draw a picture of the red blood cell from an animal, like a cow and label all of the parts. Are there any differences? If so, what part do you think these differences play in the function of the cell?</p><p>• Build a 3D model of a single-celled animal from cake. Use different tints of frosting to make the different structures inside the animal. Licorice laces can be cut up to represent the cilia. Before the cake is eaten, hand out a sheet that has the different parts labeled with call-outs, but not filled in. Allow people to view the cake and fill in the papers as to what each structure is. Just before the cake is cut, put out a poster that shows what everything is. Let the person who has the most right answers for these 7th grade science project ideas have the first piece of cake.</p><p>• Take a sample of cells from the inside of the mouth and view them under a microscope. Stain the material with a drop of food coloring. Describe what you see. Make a drawing of any clear cells and label all of the structures present.</p><p>• Plankton is made up of several kinds of single cell plants and animals. Find out what they are and make drawings of several different kinds of each. What animals use plankton as a food source. What kinds of changes in the environment could change plankton's survival in the water? Has plankton levels risen or fallen in recent years? Why?</p><p>• Different bacteria exist all around us. Where are they found? What role do they play? In what cases should bacteria be encouraged to grow? In what cases should they be discouraged? Give an example of how or why they should be encouraged, and why they should be discouraged.</p><p>With a little bit of careful thought it is possible to find any number of 7th grade science project ideas that can be turned into a science project for the inquisitive student.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><br /><br /><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_94" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Dee_Schrock">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Dee_Schrock</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-45794402840410814622009-09-21T09:40:00.000-07:002009-09-21T09:41:14.161-07:00Digestion - How the Eyes and Nose Digest Food<div id="body"><p>When you look at delicious food, you are experiencing a conditioned response. In other words, your thoughts say "Wow! That looks delicious and tasty!". Your thoughts then stimulate your brain which tells your digestive organs to get ready for some action.</p><p>When you smell food, what happens in your nose is entirely physical. The alluring aroma of tasty food gets transmitted by molecules which come off the surface of your food. These molecules settle on the membrane lining of your nostrils and stimulate the receptor cells on the olfactory nerve fibers. The olfactory nerve fibers stretch from your nose all the way back to your brain. The receptor cells communicates with your brain "Hey, there is good food here!".</p><p>Your brain will then send messages which alerts your mouth and your digestive track. The message your brain sends to your mouth is to start the saliva flowing. It will send a message to your stomach to warm up the stomach glands and will also send a message to your warm up your small intestine. Basically, the sight and scent of food can make your mouth water and your stomach hungry.</p><p>But wait a minute! What if you hate what you are smelling or seeing? For some people even the thought of liver and onions can make them want to vomit, or at least leave the room. At the current time, your body is trying to protect you. You are experiencing an rejection reaction. Which is similar when babies are given something that tastes sour or bitter. Your mouth sags and your nose wrinkles trying to keep the food as far away as possible. Your throat will also tighten and your stomach will turn. Not a very pleasant moment. But if you like what is on your plate, go ahead and take a bite.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_91" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=James_Lahey">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=James_Lahey</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-90410002724106026252009-09-10T06:15:00.003-07:002009-09-10T06:15:55.741-07:00Free LEED Guide For Green ExamThe Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a certification awarded by US Green Building Council to "encourage adoption of sustainable green (environment friendly) building and development practices through creating and implementing universally understood and accepted tools and performance criteria". In layman's terms, it is a third party certification and a benchmark for design, construction as well as operation of green buildings.<br /><br />The professional accreditation for LEED is also given to individuals, project managers, architects, contractors, construction managers, interior designers, landscape architects and even lenders and government officials to improve sustainability records.<br /><br />Why is LEED Education so Important?<br /><br />As the world wakes up to the necessity of creating and maintaining sustainable properties which do not create environmental degradation, both in the US and abroad, stricter laws are being implemented with respect to building design, construction and maintenance. Read on for a free leed guide which gives more information on the examination procedure.<br /><br />The green associate exam is an accepted international accreditation which gives a professional edge to its holders. For projects in the USA as well as for international projects, corporate houses increasingly prefer people well versed with the LEED parameters, who can work with related departments to complete building processes and maintain them according to LEED guidelines.<br /><br />The LEED ap exam or LEED Accredited Professional exam earlier had several versions depending on the versions of the LEED system, including LEED NC (new construction and major renovation), LEED EB (existing building) and LEED CI (commercial interior). The LEED EB has been discontinued, and the other two will also give way soon to the new version which comes into effect from September 15, 2009.<br /><br />The new LEED 2009 credentials will have two tiers. Tier I will require passing of a 2.5 hour exam, and the individuals will become LEED Green Associates. Tier II level will comprise of a 1.5 hour exam, which will qualify the individuals as LEED AP with speciality. The computerized multiple choice format questions give instant results and cost around $300 for professionals of member companies and $450 for others. The LEED AP exam has 80 questions, with a maximum score of 200 and 170 required to pass. LEED APs are generally recognized as experts in sustainable design.<br /><br />Many people take the LEED ap exams, and there are numerous green exam prep centres offering their services and even free LEED exam over the internet. However, study material is free and plentiful, from the USGBC, the Green Building council and other sources.<br /><br />To crack the exams, the information collected and memorized must be reproduced quickly, completing the multiple choice questions in the stipulated time. Examinees must prepare extensively through leed training classes and leed practice tests. Like most other multiple choice formats, the essential secret to be successful at the exams is to repeatedly practice mock free LEED exam papers. This is where the flash cards of LEEDedu scores an edge over the other study material providers. Its LEED exam prep courses offer extensive and carefully screened questions from expert advisors to give many practice sessions before appearing for the main exams.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Ming_XuanPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-75813784982558218832009-09-10T06:15:00.001-07:002009-09-10T06:15:28.294-07:00A Little Truth About GenesI am amazed at the inventiveness of early researchers in pursuit of the secrets of heredity. With no idea of the true chemistry of genes, investigators designed experiments to reveal genetic facts.<br /><br />Geneticists of the 1930's and '40's believed, incorrectly, that genes must be made of protein. Yet during this time, George Beadle made his "one gene-one enzyme" discovery. The discovery came about because Beadle wondered what genes actually do in order to cause traits.<br /><br />First Beadle investigated fruit fly eye colors. Normal eye color in these flies is a deep-red mixture of red and brown pigments. Two bright-red mutant colors are vermilion and cinnabar; these contain no brown. From mutant larvae, Beadle transplanted vermilion and cinnabar eye discs into normal larvae. The eyes developed normal color in the adult flies. Cross-mutant transplantation showed Beadle that the brown pigment resulted from a series of chemical reactions: a starting substance got changed to vermilion, which got changed to cinnabar, which got changed to brown. Each mutant lacked one of these reactions, but it was time-consuming to figure out which one.<br /><br />To speed up his investigation, Beadle switched from fruit flies and eye colors, to red bread mold and the nutrients it manufactured. Beadle X-rayed the bread mold to cause mutations, then tested spores from the mold to see if they could grow on a minimal food containing only sugars and salts.<br /><br />If a mold couldn't develop on the minimal food, this meant it was missing a nutrient because of a mutation. Beadle tested to see if the mutation was in a single gene. If so, Beadle then added a supplement, such as a vitamin or an amino acid. If that didn't make the mold grow, he tried a different supplement, until he found the missing nutrient.<br /><br />During growth, each mutant mold accumulated a chemical. This chemical came from the reaction step where the mutant got stuck. The mutants could be arranged in order, according to where they got stuck, and this order showed the reaction steps in the manufacture of the supplement nutrient.<br /><br />Beadle knew that each chemical reaction is controlled by an enzyme. So each mutant mold must be missing the enzyme that could change its accumulated chemical to the next one in the series. Since each mutant was missing a single gene, each of those genes must give rise to a single enzyme. "One gene-one enzyme!"<br /><br />Julie Simon Lakehomer is writing a book about DNA. The book tells the life stories of thirteen geneticists, eager to ferret out the secrets of inheritance. These researchers committed themselves to conversation with the DNA universe until, revelation by revelation, they transformed what was known about heredity.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Julie_LakehomerPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-30218689144457831222009-09-10T06:14:00.001-07:002009-09-10T06:14:53.373-07:00Why Study Math? - Solving Multi-Step Linear Inequalities - Part IUnlike an equation, which shows balance or harmony among two expressions, an inequality shows imbalance. That is, an inequality states that one expression is bigger than or less than another expression. Linear inequalities involve expressions which are lines, or linear equations. These inequalities are solved much the same way as equations with one key difference. Read on to enter this curious world.<br /><br />Let us take the linear equation 2x + 1 = 5. You know to solve for the unknown, x, you subtract 1 from both sides and then divide by 2. Thus x = 2. If we replace the "=" symbol by an inequality symbol such as "<", less than, or ">" greater than, we have a linear inequality. If we choose the former we have 2x + 1 < 5, which establishes the "imbalance" between the left and right hand sides of the expression. What this says mathematically is that the quantity 2x + 5 is strictly less than the quantity 5. (Note: we can also use the inequality symbols < and > with the = symbol to get <=, or less than or equal to, and >= greater than or equal to. In these cases, the "=" symbol permits the right and left sides of the expression to be equal.)<br /><br />To solve an inequality, we carry out the exact same steps as if it were an equation, keeping the inequality symbol intact. Thus in 2x + 1 < 5, we subtract 1 from both sides and divide by 2 to get x < 2. Whereas equations place strict requirements on the value of the solution, an inequality permits a broad array. To be precise, 2x + 1 = 5 permits x to be only 2; in 2x + 1 < 5, however, x can be any value less than 2. If we allow x to be any kind of number---integral, rational, or irrational---we have infinitely many possibilities to choose x from.<br /><br />You can visualize the inequality just solved as follows: picture a balance scale with a 5-weight on the right and a (2x + 1)-weight on the left. Since the inequality states that the 5-weight is bigger, the scale is tipping to the right. That is the left side is higher than the right side. Solving to get x < 2, tells us that in order for the "imbalance" to be maintained-for the right side to continue being lower than the left side-then x has to be any weight less than 2.<br /><br />Take another example: 3y - 4 >= 8. In words, this inequality states that the quantity 3y - 4 is bigger than or equal to the quantity 8. Visually in terms of our balance scale, this inequality says that the left side is in balance with or bigger, that is tipping left, than the right side. To solve, we simply add 4 to both sides and then divide by 3. Doing so gives that y >= 4. Thus if we choose y to be any weight equal to or bigger than 4, our given "imbalance" or balance, in the case when both sides are equal, will be maintained.<br /><br />The next time you see an expression involving one of the "imbalance" symbols, know that you have an inequality, and that to solve, really requires nothing new. There are some situations, however, that require a little more care. Those we get to in Part II.<br /><br />Joe is a prolific writer of self-help and educational material and is the creator and author of over a dozen books and ebooks which have been read throughout the world. He is a former teacher of high school and college mathematics and has recently returned as a professor of mathematics at a local community college in New Jersey.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Joe_PaganoPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-51905240343618149202009-08-30T10:20:00.001-07:002009-08-30T10:20:15.268-07:00Making Waves With SoundHey kids, have you ever wondered why you hear thunder after you see lightning? Or why the horn on a car sounds different when it's coming toward you than when it's moving away? Or why things sound different under water? It all has to do with sound waves!<br /><br />Anything that vibrates makes a sound. Try this: put your hand gently against your throat and hum. Can you feel those vibrations? That's your voice!<br /><br />The faster something vibrates, the higher the sound is. And the bigger the vibrations, the louder the sound is. When something vibrates, it smashes into the particles of air, liquid, or solid around it. These particles then smash into the particles next to them, and send the sound along in a wave.<br /><br />You can see the way sound travels by filling up a tub or sink with water. Put your hand in the water and give it a quick wave. See how the wave your hand made travels through the water? Sound travels in just the same way!<br /><br />Sound also travels differently depending on what it's moving through. If you had a microscope more powerful than anything on the planet, you would be able to see that everything around us is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms in a gas, like air, are far apart and whizzing around. The atoms in a liquid are closer together, but slosh past each other. The atoms in a solid are packed tightly together and locked into one shape.<br /><br />When sound waves travel through air, the atoms are spaced so far apart that it's hard for one group of atoms to reach the next group to pass the sound wave along. Sound waves in air fade away very fast.<br /><br />Because the atoms in liquid are much closer together, it's much easier for them to bump into each other and pass the sound wave along. But the best thing for sending sound waves along is a solid. Have you ever seen a movie where someone puts their ear to the ground to see if someone is following them? That's because solid rock carries sounds faster and farther than air!<br /><br />You can try this experiment with a friend. Find a long metal fence, and stand at either end of it. Put your ear to the fence, and have your friend tap the other end with a rock or stick. You should be able to hear the sound twice - once through the fence, and again through the air!<br /><br />You can also hear that sounds are much louder in solids than in air. That's why spies in movies will listen to a conversation though a wall by putting their ear against a glass. The solid glass makes the sound louder!<br /><br />You can have some learning fun of your own with this simple experiment: Get in a bathtub (or something you can swim in), and tap the side of the tub with something hard. Then put your head underwater and tap again. The sound should be louder in the water! Now put your ear against the side of the tub and tap a third time. The sound will be even louder!<br /><br />So remember next time you're dancing to your favourite songs to take a look at the speakers and watch the vibrations. Those simple smashing atoms can make some really amazing beats!<br /><br />Discover more kids science articles, look up amazing fun facts, do animated science quizzes with talking characters, meet friends in virtual worlds, play games and do fun science activities at Science Score - the world's most fun online elearning product for kids.<br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Sarah_Jane_ElliottPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-29474103537091629282009-08-30T10:19:00.001-07:002009-08-30T10:19:59.827-07:00The Shocking Story of ElectricityHey kids, have you ever watched lightning in the sky at night, or gotten zapped when you touched a metal door? Those are two shocking examples of electricity! <br /><br />Elementary science teaches us that everything in the world is made up of tiny particles called atoms. An atom is made up of a hard core, called a nucleus, and a cloud of fast whizzing particles called electrons that move around the nucleus. Sometimes electrons can even jump from one place to another. When electrons move, this creates a current of electricity. <br /><br />When you see lightning up in the sky, you're actually seeing billions of electrons jumping all at once from one place to another. Moving electrons tend to release a lot of energy, and we can use this electricity to do all kinds of things, from powering a computer to splitting an atom apart. <br /><br />Our bodies also use electricity. Every thought that you have is the result of tiny electrical signals jumping between the cells in your brain. Everything that you feel is an electrical message passed down long pathways called nerves that run from your body to your brain. Even your heart is controlled by electrical signals that tell each cell in your heart when to beat. <br /><br />A heart attack happens when this electrical signal gets mixed up and every cell in your heart tries to beat at a different time. That's why doctors can use a machine called a defibrillator to deliver a powerful electric shock to your heart - it resets all the heart cells and gets them beating in time again! <br /><br />Here's a fun and easy elementary science experiment you can do to see electricity at home: <br /><br />A Hair-Raising Experiment<br /><br />1. Blow up a balloon and tie a knot in the end to keep the air from escaping.<br />2. Rub the balloon quickly back and forth over your head for ten seconds.<br />3. Slowly pull the balloon away. Watch what happens to your hair.<br />4. Touch the balloon to a smooth surface, like a wall, and let go. If you rubbed enough, it should stick!<br /><br />What's Happening: <br /><br />Have you ever heard the saying "opposites attract"? Well, that's true of electric charges, too. Electrons have a negative charge, and the protons that make up the nucleus of an atom have a positive charge. Electrons push away from other electrons, but are strongly attracted to things with a positive charge. There are usually the same number of protons and electrons in an atom, so most of the time, they cancel each other out. <br /><br />When you rub the balloon over your hair, the balloon grabs electrons from the atoms in your hair. Now there are more electrons than protons in the balloon, and fewer electrons than protons in your hair. This leaves the balloon with a negative charge and your hair with a positive charge. Since opposites attract, the negatively charged balloon sticks to your positively charged hair! <br /><br />When you touch the balloon to the wall, the electrons in the atoms of the wall are repelled by the balloon and move away from it, but the protons in the wall are attracted to the electrons in the balloon and move slightly toward it. The negative charge in the balloon is attracted to the positive charge in the wall, and zap! It sticks just like a magnet. <br /><br />Now that is shocking science! <br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Sarah_Jane_ElliottPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-23258604443038489652009-08-30T10:18:00.000-07:002009-08-30T10:19:42.120-07:00Middle School Science Fair Projects - Brainstorming Ideas For Science Fair SuccessThere many topics that can be used for middle school science fair projects, covering a range of scientific disciplines. Below is a list of scientific questions that can be adapted for use by the middle school students:<br /><br />• What kinds of single cell animals live in the water? How are they different from viruses and bacteria? How do they reproduce?<br />• What is the life cycle of the common butterfly? Name the stages that it goes through from egg to mature adult.<br />• Explain what DNA is. What is a chromosome? What is a gene? What is inheritance?<br />• Name four major glands in the body. Make diagrams for them and explain what their function is.<br />• Name the major classifications for different animal species. How are they different from one another? What are the names of some of the animals in each classification?<br />• What are the main classifications for rocks? How are they differentiated and what are the different characteristics that make them unique? How was each type formed?<br />• Using edible ingredients make a sample aquifer. Show how pollutants can get into the water. Show how the water table can be reduced by pumping.<br />• Get a telescope and observe the night sky. Draw the constellations that you see and explain which time of the year it is based on what ones you see in the night sky.<br />• Pick a favorite dinosaur and research what kind of environment it was likely to live in. What kinds of food did it most likely eat? What geologic period in time did it come from?<br />• Research how much goes into our landfills each year that can be recycled or composted. What kinds of environmental advantages could be gained if every American could be convinced to do his part and stopped throwing away reusable items?<br />• What is a carbon footprint? What are some things that the average person could do to reduce the carbon footprint he makes in a year? How are these changes likely to benefit the environment?<br />• What kinds of renewable energy sources are being investigated currently? How will these alternatives help the environment? What can be powered using these alternatives?<br />• Yeast are single celled animals that are used in baking and brewing. What function do they serve? How do they perform their work?<br />• What are the different cells found in blood? What function does each kind of cell perform for the body?<br />• What are the four blood types found in humans? What is an Rh factor? Which blood type is the most common? Which is the least common? What is an allele?<br />• What is lightening? What conditions in the atmosphere are necessary for it to form? Why is it so dangerous?<br />• What is wind? What causes it to move across the face of the earth?<br /><br />These are just a few of the many questions you can base your middle school science fair projects on. Choosing a category of interest by which to base your hypothesis is a good starting point. Finding a topic interesting to you is the key to a winning science fair project.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Dee_SchrockPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-77209049197354325102009-08-30T10:17:00.000-07:002009-08-30T10:18:24.335-07:00Discover GemstonesOur world is built of rocks and minerals. Gemstones crystals, which are mineral compositions, develop deep in the earth where heat melts the minerals from rocks and turns them into liquid magma. This liquid pours out through cracks in the earth or when volcanoes erupt and if there is enough space in the midst of the cracks and crevices of the Earth's crust, the crystals may form and grow. When they cool and harden the new structures expand, connect and develop to form regular three-dimensional geometric shapes that we know as Crystals.<br /><br />Specific conditions combined with heat and pressure makes crystals grow and become very beautiful, captivating and rare. When this happens, we call these stones precious or semiprecious. Emeralds, diamonds, sapphires and rubies are among the most valuable because they posses the most magnificent colors and are not so abundant. These are the precious stones of which the diamond is "king". But there are also other stones of somewhat lesser value known as semiprecious stones. These are found in more abundant quantities and for that reason their worth is less; but still, they are very attractive and also have the admiration of jewelry artist as well as those that acquire them. To name a few of these group, we have: aquamarine, amethyst, peridot, citrine and carnelian. If you have seen these stones, you realize immediately their mystery, uniqueness and beauty. The word crystal comes from the ancient Greek word krustallos that means ice. Crystals can be found at the surface of the earth or mined underground; large ones originate inside the earth and small ones on the surface.<br /><br />The minerals that make up crystals can arrange themselves in six different and regular geometrical shapes and they are classified into seven systems. For the purpose of this article, I will only name them because further understanding of their classification is a lengthy study called crystallography that also includes the study of all other properties of crystals. The crystal systems are called: cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, trigonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. The six shapes are amorphous, pyramidal acicular, prismatic, massive and dendritic. Other physical properties of crystals are: hardness, density and specific gravity, and cleavage and fracture. Among the optical properties are: color, luster, transparency, luminescence and interference.<br /><br />A few gems come from plants or animal sources and they are known as organic gems such as amber, pearls, jet and corals. These gems are also minerals but they have different origins. They are also classified by their properties.<br /><br />The incredible beauty of crystals cannot be denied. It is almost impossible to decide which stone one likes best. I choose to love each and every one of them and discover their hidden mystery and allure.<br /><br />The-Joy-of-Jewelry.com is an online store created by Patricia Aguirre.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Patricia_AguirrePintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-84321520277530394412009-08-16T10:11:00.003-07:002009-08-16T10:11:31.873-07:00The Role of Glycerol in the Maturation of Skin Cells<div id="body"><p>Personal care products like creams, lotions and soaps contain glycerol, a compound known to be a humectant. It attracts moisture and keeps skin feeling smooth and supple. It prevents dryness, too. This is why lots of products for the skin contain the compound. It is one of the safest and most useful chemical on earth, and is actually a by-product during soap making but commercial soap makers remove the substance in the soap mixture and use it in other products such as moisturizing creams and lotions. Medical College of Georgia has researchers saying that as much as glycerol offers skin benefits, the chemical may have therapeutic effects too.</p><p>Glycerol or glycerin is a sugar alcohol. It is a trihydric alcohol with three hydroxyl groups attached to each carbon atom. This molecular feature may better be left for chemists. The chemical has an important property which is hygroscopicity. This hygroscopic nature of the compound means that it attracts moisture or draws in water from the surroundings. This characteristic has become known in many industries particularly the cosmetics and skin care product industries.</p><p>There have been debates as to the effectiveness of the substance as a moisturizing agent. If it is indeed water-absorbing, it may pull in moisture from the air and even from the skin tissue itself. However, this hypothesis has never been validated.</p><p>There is a young hypothesis, on the other hand, that is under careful study and it has something to do with the role of glycerol in skin maturation process. It has been known in anatomy classes that the stages of skin growth start in the lower layers. Young skin cells move up pushing the old cells up where they die forming a protective outer layer. However, this process is not as simple as it looks.</p><p>Glycerol has something to do with the maturation of skin cells. This was what researchers found out recently. As you have known in your biology classes, each cell is enclosed by a lipid bilayer. This double phospholipid membrane serves as the protective covering of cells. The skin cells have additional layer for additional protection and this makes the skin a tough barrier.</p><p>An enzyme called phospholipase D has something to do with the process and it has been found out that glycerol combines with this enzyme to direct skin cell maturation. The combination produces phosphatidylglycerol, which is a lipid that activates enzymes necessary for cell differentiation.</p><p>It appeared that lack of this trihydric alcohol in the skin causes some problems such as thickening due to failure of the skin tissue to mature properly. A study subjected mice whose genes were modified such that they produce less glycerol. Another version of the study had mice whose lacked fats. Remember, the compound under investigation comes from fats. All these mice showed little glycerin, thus skin maturation was impaired. The result was mice with dry and thick skin.</p><p>The subjects of the study, which happened to be mice, were given glycerin orally. The skin conditions showed improvement. Mice given with other agents did not show improvements. This made researchers conclude that the water-loving compound has something to do with the development of the skin tissue.</p><p>The activation mechanism in skin cells is important, without which various skin conditions can occur. Skin disorders like psoriasis and skin cancer occur as a result of trouble in the maturation of the skin cells. In these cases, skin maturation is disrupted by continuous cell growth and this leads to abnormality.</p><p>Although this research is not basically aimed at possible treatment programs, it aims to understand the processes involved in the development of skin tissue. It is now known that glycerol has something to do with the maturation of skin tissue. What remains unknown is the exact participation of phosphatidylglycerol and what enzymes it activates. Another thing is how it activates those enzymes. This further research could be a breakthrough in dermatological study. It could open doors to more advanced treatment procedures for various skin diseases.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p><br /></p><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_95" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Jo_Alelsto">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jo_Alelsto</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-58541223176075476822009-08-16T10:11:00.001-07:002009-08-16T10:11:17.834-07:00Glycerol - An Indispensable Chemical Substance<div id="body"><p>A little more than two hundred years ago a chemist named Carl W. Scheele from Sweden heated olive oil and an oxide of lead called litharge. He was amazed to discover a thick liquid that came out of the mixture. He did not know what it was at first. And never did he think it would become one of the most important industrial and commercial chemicals in the world today.</p><p>He named it glycerol, from the Greek word glykys, meaning sweet. Indeed he discovered a sweet-tasting substance. During the next studies made about the compound, it was identified to be a major component of fats and oils - that it is in chemical combination with fatty acid molecules to form glycerides. In the coming centuries since its inception, it became widely used in industrial manufacturing. This compound is also known as glycerin or glycerine.</p><p>In its pure form C3H8O3 or glycerol has no odor and color but has a sweet taste. It is a thick, syrupy liquid and is quite miscible in alcohol and water. In fact, there are instances that the chemical is used as a solvent. It does not dissolve in hydrocarbons though. At very low temperatures it solidifies into crystals that melt at 18 degrees Celsius. The liquid form boils at 290 degrees Celsius at standard conditions.</p><p>During the World War II heavy demands for the compound rose because it is an ingredient to synthesize nitroglycerine - an ingredient of explosives and heart-disease medications as well. However, it is not an explosive by itself. During this time there was huge reliance on soap making as a source of the substance since this process yields glycerin as a byproduct.</p><p>A related and similar method of extracting the chemical is through hydrolysis of fats or oils. Currently, however, another way of producing the compound is through preparation from a hydrocarbon source called propylene. Depending on its purity, the compound may be used in a vast number of ways. The crude, unrefined glycerin is an ingredient of dynamites, for instance. The pure, refined form is the one which is used in food and medicines.</p><p>In nearly all industries, the substance has a role to fit in. Its unique properties make it a valuable chemical used in pharmaceutical preparations and cosmetics. It is in fact, an ingredient of a huge collection of products from skin care to medicines. It is a hygroscopic and hydrophilic chemical, which means it absorbs water. Thus, when found in lotions, creams and soaps, it enhances the moisturizing and skin-softening feature of these products.</p><p>This is the reason why commercial soap manufacturers remove the glycerin that naturally forms in the soap mixture. They use the chemical in more valuable and profitable products as lotions, creams and other cosmetics. The same feature explains why hand-made or home-made soaps, whose glycerin component remains in the mixture, have more skin-moisturizing effects.</p><p>In pharmaceutical preparations, it acts as a humectant, preventing creams and ointments from drying out. It is about 60% as sweet as table sugar, that is why it acts as a sweetener or a sugar substitute. It is also a good emulsifying agent that it has the ability to keep insoluble particles of a mixture in uniform dispersion, preventing precipitation or settling of insoluble particles. This is particularly an advantage in medications that must be kept in colloidal suspension.</p><p>In baked food, like cakes, the moisture-retaining property of the substance is an advantage because it keeps them soft and moist. It also moistens and softens some candies. It is an excellent solvent for many products like tinctures, extracts, food coloring agents, and food flavorings. Tobacco tastes sweet and remains damp because of its presence on the leaves, and this prevents the leaves from crumbling when rolled and folded. Paints, coatings, glues, adhesives, cellophanes, and meat casings contain glycerin.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p><br /></p><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_95" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Jo_Alelsto">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jo_Alelsto</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-36485754822300695922009-08-16T10:10:00.000-07:002009-08-16T10:11:01.930-07:006th Grade Science Projects Made Simple and Fun<div id="body"><p><b>6th grade science projects</b> are not expected to be original; it is perfectly okay to do an experiment that has been done before. Some schools start doing science fairs in sixth grade, but they are not usually too competitive as their purpose is really to get the students interested. The judges simply want to see that you have put the effort into your project and made up a nice presentation for it. Still, there are endless ideas of topics you can pick.</p><p>One fun idea for <i>6th grade science projects</i> is to see how well people can identify different smells when blind folded. This project is fairly simple. All you need is a blindfold and a few items with different smells. A few ideas might be vanilla, cinnamon, coffee beans, vinegar, and so on. There are many, many different things you can use. To do this project, you will need a volunteer or two. It would be a good idea to make up a chart in advance so you can record your results. Blindfold your volunteer and put each scent under their nose one at a time, and record whether or not they were able to identify what the scent was.</p><p>Originality is not the key factor here at this age. The judges just want to see that you are capable of performing an experiment on your own, writing up a report on it and presenting your finding in an organized, easy to understand way. There is absolutely nothing wrong with doing an experiment that has already been done, as long as you try to make it your own.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><br /><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_80" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Dee_Schrock">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Dee_Schrock</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-14011119333896398902009-08-16T10:09:00.000-07:002009-08-16T10:10:46.376-07:00New Factors in the Global Warming Debate<div id="body"><p>In the general public discourse the climate change debate has been, so far, confined almost entirely to the greenhouse gas issue. Our economycarbon footprint utterly dominates all climate change discussions. In actual fact there are several major influences acting on the global climate in terms of raising or lowering atmospheric temperatures. The warming induced by greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, is the first such influence.</p><p>However, while the physics of the greenhouse effect are clear, the chain of causality between greenhouse gas accumulation in the atmosphere and specific weather patterns is not fully understood. At this time the actual consequences of such accumulation cannot be accurately predicted in terms of timing and impact. The second influence comes from periodic variations in the earth orbit around the sun and in the inclination of its axis. These cyclical variations have been relatively well correlated with past ice ages and warmer inter-glacial periods.</p><p>According to some recent published research in this area our planet would currently be sliding into another cold period or ice age, although the timing is hard to pin down. The third influence, which has come into prominence only recently, is solar activity as manifested through the sunspot cycle. For the earth, a high sunspot count means warming, a low count cooling. Although the basic cycle has an average periodicity of eleven years, there are also long term variations which are not well understood.</p><p>Sunspot activity has just reached a low which may or may not be significant. But if this low persists, significant cooling can be expected. One can conclude that the overall picture is becoming increasingly ambiguous. Greenhouse gas accumulation due to the use of fossil fuels is no longer the only story in town, nor is warming the inevitable future outcome.</p><p>The purpose here is not to claim that greenhouse gas accumulation is not significant. It is to warn that other influences are in play which can be equally important, and that our scientific understanding must be increased before major economic measures, such as a tax on carbon emissions, are implemented. One such measure, a so-called cap and trade scheme, is currently under discussion in the US Congress.</p><p>Such a scheme has considerable drawbacks. First, it amounts to a highly regressive tax on energy, which will disproportionally affect the lower income fractions of the population. Second, it introduces huge market distortions which vastly complicate efforts to deal with the gradually increasing price and reduced availability of petroleum. To be successful, such efforts require first and foremost a realistic and workable long-term energy strategy, the elaboration of which must precede any large-scale government intervention in the energy area.</p><p>The US government at this time does not have such a strategy, which, as far as its impact on climate is concerned, must rest on a much better scientific understanding of the various influences on climate listed above. Funding to increase and test this understanding will have a far greater impact than any of the currently proposed schemes to reduce carbon emissions. Until such understanding is on more solid footing, there is no valid justification for major initiatives in economic policy on climate change grounds.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p><a id="link_93" target="_new" href="http://voyons-potsdemiel.blogspot.com/"><br /></a></p><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_94" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Jacek_Popiel">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jacek_Popiel</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-23842874163281323572009-08-03T07:32:00.002-07:002009-08-03T07:33:09.785-07:00Concept of Process Validation For Pharmaceutical Industry<div id="body"><p><strong>Concept of Validation</strong><br />According to GMP definition Validation is "Establishing documented evidence which provides a high degree of assurance that a specific process will consistently produce a product meeting its pre-determined specifications and quality attributes."</p><p>Appropriate and complete documentation is recognized as being crucial to the validation effort. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), manufacturing formulae, detailed batch documentation, change control systems, investigational reporting systems, analytical documentation, development reports, validation protocols and reports are integral components of the validation philosophy. The validation documentation provides a source of information for the ongoing operation of the facility and is a resource that is used in subsequent process development or modification activities.</p><p>All validation activities will incorporate a level of Impact Assessment to ensure that systems, services and products directly influenced by the testing have been identified.</p><p>A revalidation program should be implemented based on routine equipment revalidation requirements and on the Change Control Policy.</p><p><strong>Types of Validation</strong></p><p><strong>Prospective validation</strong><br />Establishing documented evidence that a piece of equipment/process or system will do what it purports to do, based upon a pre-planned series of scientific tests as defined in the Validation Plan.</p><p><strong>Concurrent validation</strong> <br />Is employed when an existing process can be shown to be in a state of control by applying tests on samples at strategic points throughout a process; and at the end of the process. All data is collected concurrently with the implementation of the process until sufficient information is available to demonstrate process reproducibility.</p><p><strong>Retrospective validation</strong><br />Establishing documented evidence that a process does what it purports to do, based on review and analysis of historical data.</p><p><strong>Design Qualification (DQ)</strong><br />The intent of the DQ is met during the design and commissioning process by a number of mechanisms, which include:</p><p>- Generation of User Requirement Specifications<br />- Verification that design meets relevant user requirement specifications.<br />- Supplier Assessment /Audits<br />- Challenge of the design by GMP review audits<br />- Product Quality Impact Assessment<br />- Specifying Validation documentation requirements from equipment suppliers<br />- Agreement with suppliers on the performance objectives<br />- Factory Acceptance Testing (FAT), Site Acceptance Testing (SAT) & commissioning procedures<br />- Defining construction and installation documentation to assist with Installation Qualification (IQ).</p><p><strong>Installation Qualification (IQ)</strong><br />IQ provides documented evidence that the equipment or system has been developed, supplied and installed in accordance with design drawings, the supplier's recommendations and In-house requirements. Furthermore, IQ ensures that a record of the principal features of the equipment or system, as installed, is available and that it is supported by sufficient adequate documentation to enable satisfactory operation, maintenance and change control to be implemented.</p><p><strong>Operational Qualification (OQ)</strong><br />OQ provides documented evidence that the equipment operates as intended throughout the specified design, operational or approved acceptance range of the equipment, as applicable. In cases where process steps are tested, a suitable placebo batch will be used to demonstrate equipment functionality.<br />All new equipment should be fully commissioned prior to commencing OQ to ensure that as a minimum the equipment is safe to operate, all mechanical assembly and pre-qualification checks have been completed, that the equipment is fully functional and that documentation is complete.</p><p><strong>Performance Qualification (PQ)</strong><br />The purpose of PQ is to provide documented evidence that the equipment can consistently achieve and maintain its performance specifications over a prolonged operating period at a defined operating point to produce a product of pre-determined quality. The performance specification will reference process parameters, in-process and product specifications. PQ requires three product batches to meet all acceptance criteria for in-process and product testing. For utility systems, PQ requires the utility medium to meet all specifications over a prolonged sampling period.</p><p>The PQ documentation should reference standard manufacturing procedures and batch records and describe the methodology of sampling and testing to be used.</p><p><strong>What Gets Validated</strong><br /><strong>General</strong><br />All process steps, production equipment, systems and environment, directly used for the manufacture of sterile and non sterile products must be formally validated.</p><p>All major packaging equipment and processes should be validated. This validation is less comprehensive.<br />All ancillary systems that do not directly impact on product quality should be qualified by means of a technical documentation of the extent of the system and how it operates.</p><p><strong>Facility</strong><br />- Manufacturing Area Design.<br />- Personnel and material flow etc.</p><p><strong>Process and Equipment Design</strong><br />Process steps and equipment description. i.e. Dispensing, Formulating, Packaging, Equipment washing <br />and cleaning. etc</p><p><strong>Utility Systems Design</strong><br />Raw/purified steam, Purified water, Compressed Air, Air conditioning system, Vacuum, Power supply, Lighting, Cooling water, Waste etc</p><p><strong>Computerized Systems Design</strong><br />Information system, Laboratory automated equipments, Manufacturing automated equipments, Electronic records etc</p><p><strong>Cleaning Validation (CV)</strong><br />CV provides documented evidence that a cleaning procedure is effective in reducing to pre-defined maximum allowable limits, all chemical and microbiological contamination from an item of equipment or a manufacturing area following processing. The means of evaluating the effectiveness of cleaning involves sampling cleaned and sanitized surfaces and verifying the level of product residues, cleaning residues and bacterial contamination.</p><p>The term CV is to be used to describe the analytical investigation of a cleaning procedure or cycle. The validation protocols should reference background documentation relating to the rationale for "worst case" testing, where this is proposed. It should also explain the development of the acceptance criteria, including chemical and microbial specifications, limits of detection and the selection of sampling methods.</p><p><strong>Method Validation (MV)</strong><br />MV provides documented evidence that internally developed test methods are accurate, robust, effective, reproducible and repeatable. The validation protocols should reference background documentation relating to the rationale for the determination of limits of detection and method sensitivity.</p><p><strong>Computer Validation</strong><br />Computer Validation provides documented evidence to assure systems will consistently function according to their pre-determined specifications and quality attributes, throughout their lifecycle. Important aspects of this validation approach are the formal management of design (through a specification process); system-quality (through systematic review and testing); risk (through identification and assessment of novelty and critical functionality) and lifecycle (through sustained change control).</p><p>Where equipment is controlled by embedded computer systems, elements of computer validation may be performed as part of the equipment IQ and OQ protocols.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p>General process, cleaning and methodology validation concepts are described in this article with a special view to pharmaceutical industry</p><p><a id="link_105" target="_new" href="http://www.gmpqualityup.com/"><br /></a></p><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_106" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Sami_Power">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Sami_Power</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-38420487616297311752009-08-03T07:32:00.001-07:002009-08-03T07:32:50.964-07:00The Pheromone Women Get Attracted To<div id="body"><p>Pheromones come in different forms and types. It is not just a single thing that comes in various brands. In fact, there are actually five types of pheromones that will be discussed below. <br /> <br />The first pheromone women get attracted to is the "androstenone". This one is found in low levels in the sweat and urine of men. It gets the attention of women that is studied to have caused them an increase in sexual tension and arousal. The effect it creates for men though is aggression since it can create for them an intimidating and dominant aura. The next type, and read it well since it may look the same at first glance but it is a different type of those pheromones out there that can induce an effect on women, the "androsterone". This type of pheromone women get attracted to promotes in them a certain sense of trust even if the male is a complete stranger. It provides for males the dominant and masculine appeal leaving the intimidation and aggression effect given by the first type, androstenone. It also allows for the non-threatening alpha male profile. It gives the males the aura of leadership and safety as well as his ability to protect the women and his reliability. These traits are more associated with the peaceful alpha male profile.<br /> <br />Another same sounding type is the "androstenol". This is otherwise called the icebreaker pheromone women may find interesting since it triggers friendliness and chattiness. Like other pheromones, it allows for the increase in sexual attractiveness of the male. Different effects are produced by the 2 types of "s" compound found in the androstenol, the beta and the alpha isomers. The latter allows for the friendly, more approachable and less intimidating impression. Little is known of the former type but that it enhances the latter to give that feeling of comfort and friendliness. Androstenol also produces the effect of being healthy and young.<br /> <br />A pheromone that is said to be a testosterone (sex hormone) derivative is the "androstadienone". It affects women's brain activity and elevates her mood. It also gives them a reduced feeling of tension and nervousness. The last type is the "oxytocin analog" which gives the feelings of deep connection and trust.<br /> <br />If you are a female, you may now determine which type of pheromone has a strong effect on you. If you are a male and you are sensitive enough to know how you woman feels for you, then you may realize what type of pheromone you naturally have.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p><br /></p><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_91" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Jason_Main">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jason_Main</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-26473973022303045512009-08-03T07:31:00.000-07:002009-08-03T07:32:33.187-07:00Does Gene Expression Hold the Key to Violence?<div id="body"><p>The way children are cared for from the moment they are born may affect how their genes are expressed and consequently how likely they are to grow up to be violent.</p><p>Longitudinal research from Canada shows that chronically violent young men demonstrate underdeveloped gene expression in the hormonal system that would help them to deal with stress.</p><p>Presenting at last month's <em>Parents Matter</em> conference in London, Professor Richard Tremblay from the University of Montreal guided his audience through striking findings from the Montreal Longitudinal Experimental Study (MLES).</p><p>The data showed that young adults who display chronic aggression demonstrate only partial expression of the genes vital to the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis). This is the hormonal system responsible for, among other things, how individuals react to stressful situations.</p><p>DNA is the blueprint for human development. But not everything found in the code is put into action. For genes to be expressed, DNA must be translated into proteins that will change something in our bodies. Researchers now broadly agree that gene expression is influenced to a large extent by environmental factors.</p><p>The Montreal study has been following the progress of over 1,000 boys since 1984. From poor and deprived neighborhoods, they were selected for the study as being at high risk of becoming young offenders.</p><p>Tremblay's analysis separated them into four groups: those who exhibited no physical aggression and who were prone to use "normal," high and chronic levels. Individuals on a trajectory of chronic aggression showed poorer gene expression for the HPA axis; the normal group showed typical gene expression in this area.</p><p>The study also collected a large amount of contextual data about the children. Tremblay and his team then looked for the most important risk factors for chronic aggression. Two were prominent: having a teenage mother or a mother with little or no education.</p><p>One interpretation of these risk factors is that there is a connection between poor parenting, low gene expression and chronic aggression.</p><p>Tremblay explained how the analysis applied to the Montreal Longitudinal Experimental Study was based on a study of rats by university colleagues.</p><p>In investigating the importance of parenting on rat development and in particular the significance of grooming, the researchers discovered that the rats who were licked most, lived longest.</p><p>Licking and grooming had a chemical impact on the expression of their genes - a factor key to the proper development of the HPA axis.</p><p>Tremblay also discussed the potential implications of his human findings in policy making when he spoke at the London conference. If the quality of care children received affected the development of their hormonal systems, early intervention was essential.</p><p>Investments in attempts to modify the behavior of aggressive adolescent boys were bound to be largely wasted. Future efforts should focus on the well-being of the teenage mothers of the aggressive young men of tomorrow, he argued.</p></div><div id="sig" class="sig"><p><u><strong>Prevention Action</strong></u> (<a id="link_89" target="_new" href="http://www.preventionaction.org/">http://www.preventionaction.org</a>) is an online news publication reporting internationally on prevention and early intervention programs for improving children's health and development.</p><p><em>Comprehensive</em> The focus of the website extends to physical, behavioral, emotional, social and intellectual development. Daily stories, comment and blogs look at the potential causes of impairments to children's health and development, such as poverty, poor housing, genes and gene-environment interactions, and family dysfunction.</p><p>We are also interested in public policy, professional practice and public behavior that bears on the success of prevention.</p><p><em>International</em> Coverage takes a determinedly broad view by reporting on initiatives from all over the world, among developed and developing societies.</p><br /><div><p>Article Source: <a id="link_91" href="http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Matt_Jonas">http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Matt_Jonas</a></p></div></div>Pintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-57026140086568736512009-05-23T07:50:00.001-07:002009-05-23T07:50:37.523-07:00What is the Importance of Nanotechnology?Nanotechnology is significant on account of of its pre- eminence upon the comprehension, use, and control of matter at magnitudes of a minute scale, akin to approaching atomic levels, with which to manufacture new substances, instruments, and frameworks. Also known as 'Molecular Manufacturing', it is an emergent diversity of technologies in which medicine and engineering come together with physics and chemical science which are opening up many brand new possibilities especially within the medical arena in terms of implantable transmission methods, which are often favoured to the application of injectable medicines.<br /><br />One, if not the most important, aspects of the applications of Nanotechnology is the incorporation of this science into medical programs embracing the present research into vaccine formation, wound regeneration, skin care, narcotic countermeasures and chemical and biologic detectors. The biological in addition to medicinal study areas, have utilized the unequalled properties of nanomaterials for various programs not least due to their aspiring enhanced delivery methods, such as pulmonic or epidermic systems to prevent having to pass throughout the abdomen, encapsulation for both delivery and deferred release, and ultimately the combination of detection with transmission, to ensure that medicines are delivered precisely where they are required, consequently reducing the side effects on sound tissue and cells.<br /><br />The future may well include huge task forces of medical nanorobots tinier than a cell drifting through our bodies removing bacteria, cleaning blocked arteries, and undoing the damage of old age. This type of emerging important science would permit medical personnel to analyze if someone has suffered a heart attack quicker than is currently possible with existing checks on blood proteins. Contemplate a medical device that journeys through the body to search for and eliminate small groups of cancerous cells in advance of their spread. The leading light of nanotechnology, Dr K Eric Drexler, even asserts that nanorobots will be produced that are capable of self replicating in much the same method as cells currently do in our bodies.<br /><br />Nanotechnology pulls theories and conceptions from disciplines not only comprising engineering and physics but also chemistry, biology, mathematics and computer science. Moreover, it is being proclaimed as the next big technological revolution.<br /><br />As discussed earlier, its use is very varied, ranging from novel additions of traditional device physics, to entirely new approaches founded upon molecular self assembly, to improving new substances with dimensions on the nanoscale, even to supposition around whether we can directly manipulate matter on the atomic scale.<br /><br />While the evolvement of nanotechnology has the potential to take several decades, and the early developers are likely to be sizeable institutions with great wealth that can produce considerable advancement efforts, in the long term nanotechnology is going to be attainable to a larger variety of people. At this moment in time, now that the feasibleness of nanotechnology is extensively acknowledged, we enter the latest stage of the national debate regarding what programs should we take up to best deal with it. Raised energy proficiency, cleaner surroundings, further productive medical treatment and enhanced fabrication construction are only some of the possible advantages of nanotechnology.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=James_HewsonPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-87146585055418852452009-05-23T07:49:00.000-07:002009-05-23T07:50:19.494-07:00Dinosaurs Extinction - The Asteroid TheoryDuring the Mesozoic Era millions of dinosaurs belonging to thousands of species roamed our planet. They were the largest and most important animals on land. Today there are no living dinosaurs anywhere, they have all become extinct. Dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period, and then vanished from all the continents at the same time. As fossils cannot be dated exactly it is impossible to say if the extinction happened suddenly or was spread out over thousands of years. Once an animal has become extinct it cannot come back naturally.<br /><br />Blood sucking insects, such as mosquitoes, used to feed on the blood of dinosaurs, much as they feed on animals today. Sometimes these insects have been trapped inside the resin from trees and become fossilized and form amber, thus preserving the insect. This could enable scientists to recreate dinosaurs from information contained in the DNA extracted from the blood of these insects.<br /><br />Several other groups of animals vanished at the same time that dinosaurs became extinct. The flying reptiles, the pterosaurs and sea reptiles. Several types of shellfish, reptiles and other animals also died out about the same time.<br /><br />Scientists studying the rocks from the time dinosaurs became extinct noticed that they contained large amounts of a chemical called Iridium. This chemical is rare on Earth, but is common in asteroids. This interestingly enough suggests one theory that a giant asteroid hit our planet and from the impact and explosion scattered dust all over the planet, and if it was big enough would have filled the upper atmosphere blocking the sun and plunging it into a long period of freezing darkness. Inevitably this would have killed most plants and without food, the dinosaurs would have become extinct and died out.<br /><br />There are obviously no dinosaurs alive today and to date there have been no fossils found which date to after the Cretaceous Period. It would seem that all the dinosaurs died out. However a type of Theropod dinosaur had evolved into birds around one hundred and sixty million years ago. These birds survived, so the descendants of dinosaurs did survive the extinction. After the dinosaurs became extinct other types of animals took over the world, and even though mammals were small in numbers when the dinosaur was about, they have now increased in number and have rapidly evolved into many different types of animal, and now it is the mammals that rule the planet as the dinosaurs once did.<br /><br />There are other theories that can explain the extinction of dinosaurs this is just one of them, and if scientists could recreate dinosaurs from the DNA of prehistoric insects, how would they contain such large and ferocious animals amongst our populated world, scary stuff.<br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=John_Michael_WhitePintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-90482170955651873472009-05-23T07:48:00.000-07:002009-05-23T07:49:56.970-07:00Science Fair Food Projects - Some More Mold - Growing a Fungus GardenWhen we think of science fair food projects, most of us probably think of the bread mold project that has been done to death already. Well, here is one of our science fair food projects that look at more than only the fungus that grows on bread. There is still going to be bread in the mix though as we are going to grow a "fungus" garden.<br /><br />Do you know why we can call it a fungus "garden?" Yes, because a fungus is a "plant" and it needs certain conditions to grow such as food, the same as all other kinds of "plants." Keep in mind though that they are microorganisms and that the microbes are only visible when a lot of them gather together. This is what we normally call mold. Now we are going to see how many of them we can grow in our fungus "garden."<br /><br />For a good science fair project you have to make notes of all your steps, saying what you are doing and why you are doing it. You must formulate a hypothesis, and do the experiment according to the correct scientific method and think of your display. It is always a good idea to take photos as you go.<br /><br />Because fungus can be harmful, do not take it to the fair, but take enough photos to use in your display. Make sure you show the different kinds of fungus clearly.<br /><br />What you need for this experiment:<br /><br /> * 2 Empty clean and completely dry mayonnaise or other suitable jars with a lids<br /> * 2 Pieces of bread<br /> * 2 Pieces of apple<br /> * 2 Pieces of cucumber<br /> * 2 Pieces of cheese<br /> * 2 Pieces of carrot<br /> * 2 Pieces of any other kind of fruit available<br /> * A little water<br /> * A pen<br /> * A notebook<br /> * A camera <br /><br />How to do your experiment:<br /><br /> 1. First of all formulate your hypothesis. It is that if the food is left undisturbed in the jar for some time, the food will rot and create a colorful fungus "garden."<br /> 2. Place one piece of all the food in one of the jars. Make sure you do not overfill the jar so that you will be able to see the fungus growing clearly.<br /> 3. Now you have to sprinkle a little water in the jar and make sure you moisten all the food, do not soak it though.<br /> 4. Do you know why you are doing this?<br /> 5. Close the jar with the lid<br /> 6. Place the jar on a counter top where it will not be disturbed and also out of direct sunlight.<br /> 7. Now you do exactly the same with the second jar except you do not sprinkle any water on it.<br /> 8. This jar will serve as your control and every time you observe the other jar and take photos of it, you have to do it with this jar as well.<br /> 9. It is important that you now observe the changes that happen in the jar everyday.<br /> 10. Record everything you see and take photos every day.<br /> 11. Keep this up for at least two weeks and then ask an adult to dispose of the jar and it's contents. <br /><br />Now you have to formulate your results:<br /><br /> 1. How long did it take before you noticed the first fungus growing?<br /> 2. How many different types of fungi were you able to grow in your fungus "garden?"<br /> 3. Could you see more than one type of fungi growing on one kind of food?<br /> 4. Did the fungi spread over time?<br /> 5. Did the food change in shape or texture as the fungi grow?<br /> 6. Did the fungi grow more on certain kinds of food than on others?<br /> 7. Did the fungi grow slower or faster in your control jar?<br /> 8. Remember, every step of the way, you have to make the same observations and take the same photos of your control jar as of the other jar<br /> 9. Make sure you show the difference in the two jars very clearly<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Magrietha_Du_PlessisPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6991169891181477969.post-12630982806441411752009-04-15T00:03:00.005-07:002009-04-15T00:03:54.103-07:00What Exactly is the Milky Way?Simply put, the galaxy is the galaxy in which we live, it contains a cluster of over two hundred billion stars including our Sun and indeed our solar system. It is only one of over one hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe. Our solar system is located on one of the six spiral arms of the Milky Way named Orion, if you are somewhere that has a really dark night sky and are far away from artificial light pollution you can see the Milky Way.<br /><br />It appears as a hazy band of light forming a large arc that spirals across the sky. It is almost as old as the universe itself, the oldest star found being over thirteen billion years old. The name itself, Milky Way, is a translation from the Greek, Galaxis, which is derived from the word milk, derived from the appearance of spilt milk in the sky. Indeed, the Milky Way was first observed by the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras in the fifth century BCE. Proof of the long debated theory that the Milky Way consisted of a cluster of stars came in 1610 by way of Galileo. In 1755, Immanuel Kant correctly speculated that the Milky Way was a rotating body of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces similar to the solar system but on a colossal scale.<br /><br />And it is a colossal scale - the circumference being between two hundred and fifty and three hundred light years! As big as it is, astronomers are confronted with massive problems when trying to observe it, because the Earth is part of the Milky Way, they can't simply look down on it to study it. So, they explore other galaxies and apply what they learn from viewing them onto the Milky Way.<br /><br /><br /><br />Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Russell_ShorttPintuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13208801436683903652noreply@blogger.com0